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Title:
Volume 09 - Issue 2
Date:
1956
Table of contents:
- p. 2-6: Anand, Mulk Raj, In Praise of Later Buddhist Art [Editorial] | Demarcates the various historical phases of Buddhist art in India: (1) The ancient schools, mainly of the Maurya, Sunga, and Satavahana periods; (2) The Gandhara school (end of the 1st century to end of the 5th century CE), with a mixed indigenous and Greco-Roman tradition, which introduced the anthropomorphic Buddha and themes from his worldly life; (3) The Mathura school under Kushan patronage, which portrayed the indigenous sensibility and inner rhythm in the depiction of the human figure, yakshas and yakshis, and Bacchanalian bas-reliefs; (4) The extensions of the Gandhara style in Afghanistan (the Khyber Pass, Begram, Hadda, and Khotan); (5) The Satavahana tradition which continued between 25 BCE and 320 CE in the stupas of Amaravati, Ghantasala, Nagarjunakonda, Goli, Gummadidirum, and elsewhere; (6) The Gupta and post-Gupta periods (320-c. 700 CE), when free-standing chaityas and the paintings of Ajanta, Bagh, Badami, and Sittanvasal were executed; (7) The survival of Buddhism in eastern India between the 7th and 12th centuries under the Pala-Sena dynasties of Bengal, and the emergence of the Tantric interpretations of Buddhism; (8) The spread of Buddhism to Nepal and Tibet. In order to understand the nature of the Buddha image, it is important to contemplate upon the images produced under Buddhist patronage, but with their antecedents in the pre-Buddha Indian tradition. Buddhist art developed through a five century period of symbolic (geometric, theriomorphic, vegetable) depiction of the Buddha, similar to the aniconic phase of the pre-historic and vedic periods.
- p. 105: Medieval Buddhist Art and its Offshoots -- Taranatha | Marg reproduces this note on Buddhist art by the Tibetan monk Taranatha (who wrote a history of Buddhism in 1608) as a preliminary to the survey of Buddhist art in Tibet by George Roerich which follows
- p. 7-14: Getty, Alice, Buddha and the Gospel of Buddhism | The life of the Buddha is divided into 12 "acts" by Buddhist theologians: his descent from heaven; his entering his mother's body; his birth; early life; marriage; renunciation; retirement to Urbilva; attainment of Bodhi at Bodhgaya; his victory over Mara, the Genius of Evil; his early preaching; propagation of his doctrine and foundation of a school or community (sangha) on his arrival at Benaras; and his later life and death (probably in 477 BCE). The gospel of Buddhism comprises the primitive teachings of the Buddha, and developments subsequent to his death. The former are derived from ancient sacred books, and are more moral and psychological than theological. The doctrines are different from Brahmanism on several counts, and based on the 4 holy truths: existence of pain (duha); definition of the cause of pain (samudaya); suppression of this cause (nirodha); and the 8-fold path (arya ashtangika marga) towards their suppression. The significance of the 12 causes of suffering and the 10 commandments is also elaborated. The tripitaka ("the three baskets", i.e., collections) -- Vinaya, Suttra, and Abhidharma -- formulated after the Buddha's death form the entirety of the Buddhist sacred code. The cleavages between different Buddhist sects finally resulted in the creation of the Hinayana and Mahayana sects in c. 100 CE, each with their own set of canons. While the Hinayana preserves the "primitive Buddhism", Mahayana adds several innovations: recognition of a supreme God (adi Buddha), and worship of divinities (Bodhisattvas); recognition of Manushi Buddhas; the adoption of magical formulae and Tantric practices; and the theory of "the void".
- p. 110: Mediaeval Buddhist Art and its Offshoots -- Ceylon | The arts of Lanka, which reached their zenith in the 4th-5th centuries CE and were revived between the 8th and 10th centuries, are an extension mainly of the Buddhist development in India. The ruins of Anuradhapura and Polonaruva, and the rock at Sigria, are some sublime examples of Asiatic art, particularly of Buddha figures.
- p. 15-16: Anand, Mulk Raj, Links between Early and Later Buddhist Art: Preliminary | The history of Buddhist art in India supports the theory that local values survive, conditioned by outside influences. According to Ananda Coomaraswamy, India was part of an "Ancient East" extending from the Mediterranean to the Gangetic valley, and the Maurya, Sunga, Andhra, and Kushana art parallels and exchanges with Sumerian, Hittite, Assyrian, Mykenean, Cretan, Trojan, Lykian, Phoenician, Achaemenid, and Sassanian cultures. However, local sense persists in the symbols which survived from vedic into Nanda, Saisunaga, Maurya, and Sunga times, and find place in Buddhist art and iconography. While Ashoka brought in alien strands in his art, after him Indian tradition reverts back to the residuum of the native craftsmen. These later works under the Sungas and Satavahanas achieved the transition from the primitive phase in the early centuries before Christ towards a marked maturity in creative works.
- p. 17-22: Kalapriya, Links between Early and Later Buddhist Art: Barhut | The carvings at Bharhut retain the directness and vitality of "primitive" art, but prophesy the Buddhist Indian art to follow: the ancient technique of wood and ivory carving transplated on to stone; the flowing, linear rhythm arising out of the uniquely indigenous technique of rendering crowded forms; and the tradition of realism, as against naturalism.
- p. 23-28: Barua, B., Links between Early and Later Buddhist Art: Bodh-Gaya | The sculptures pre-suppose those at Bharhut and the monoliths of Ashoka. The legacy of Ashokan art to old Bodhgaya shrines -- which came through the channel of Bharhut plastic art -- is seen in the medallion with lion capital, two pillasters flanking the quadrangular panels, and the acanthus rows on the covering slab of the old diamond-throne. The connection with Bharhut sculptures is noticed in the railing, lotus ornaments, pillars, general ornamentation devices, symbolical outlines of the Buddha's life, and quadrangular panels. Notable Bharhut features missing at Bodhgaya are the imposing gateways, creeper work, array of guards of the sanctuary, and scenes of relic procession. The 3 Bharhut inscriptions recording donations of pilgrims from Pataliputra establish that Bharhut was a place of pilgrimage for the Buddhists of Magadha as early as c. 150 BCE. Bodhgaya was built by groups of professional artisans. The navakammika (superintendent) – who appears to be a monk or Buddhist thera -- was responsible for the general plan and subject selection; the craftsmen were responsible for the execution, and the headman for the designs. The art of Bharhut was more narrative and less dramatic, while it is the opposite at Bodhgaya.
- p. 29-35: Kramrisch, Stella, Links between Early and Later Buddhist Art: Sanchi | Two opposing themes -- Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth and fortune, in the midst of blossoming lotuses, and the monument of death and total extinction, the stupa, thrice repeated, four trees of Sambodhi (Total Awakening) form the seven symbols of the Manushi Buddhas. These are represented on the top beam of the Southern Gateway (of the Great Stupa built in the 1st century CE). The carvings on the gateway were the work of different artisan groups. The guild of ivory carvers of Vidisa (Besnagar) contributed the reliefs depicting "worship of the hair-relic" -- "procession of Indra", and "cortege of the gods". The style of the "ivory carvers" is described, and compared with that of Ananda, the foreman of artisans of King Siri Satakarni. Ananda's work on the south gateway is in close proximity with that of the " ivory carvers". The two styles not only continue the vision formulated in the previous century and well represented at Bharhut, but also show the emergence of a new style in sculpture. The style of the "ivory carvers" continued for more than four centuries through the phases of paintings at Ajanta, during which Buddhist thought evolved in its entirety.
- p. 36-40: Fabri, Charles, Gandhara and its Offshoots | The earliest examples of Gandhara art are basically identical with works of Sanchi, with only a few Hellenistic elements (mainly of fashion) distinguishing them. Gandhara art of the 6th to 8th centuries moved -- alongwith the rest of India -- from the classical to the richer, more sensitive, and elaborate baroque. Gandhara is, thus, a part of Indian art history, and the dating of Greco-Buddhist sculptures is possible to within a period of 50 years. Marg adds a note on the important monuments and images of Gandhara: the great tower at Shah-ji-ki-gheri (where the reliquary of Kanishka was found), stupa ruins at Ali Masjid, the Buddha image (supposedly the first representation of the 'Enlightened One" in Indian art), seated Buddhas, and a Bodhisattva image showing Sakyamuni as a young prince. The workmanship of the buildings -- patronized by the Kushanas -- is evidently a mixture of indigenous, Roman Eurasian, and Hellenistic influences.
- p. 41-49: de B. Codrington, K., Mathura of the Gods | Of the five continuous phases of Mathura sculpture (pre-Kushan, Kushana, post-Kushana, Gupta, and later medieval) the article analyses the sculptures of the first two phases. There are only a few fragments of pre-Kushan sculptures -- various pillars, railing bars, medallions with carvings of human figures corresponding to the Bharhut yakshas and yakshis, and a railing-pillar in the Victoria and Albert Museum. The Kushana sculptures include a statue of Kanishka, a standing Bodhisattva, three types of seated Buddhas and Bodhisattva, fragmentary ayagapatas or votive tablets (mostly Jaina), and pedestals of large images. The beginnings of the Mathura school are purely Indian, but a slight Gandharan influence is apparent from the period of the Kushana king Vasudeva. There are similarities between Kushana and post-Kushana Mathura sculptures and the contemporary school of Amaravati; there is also a close correspondence between Kushana figure sculptures of the middle period and the sculptures of the later cave temples at Karle and Kanheri.
- p. 50-52: Agesteya, The Road to Central Asia: Afghanistan | Kapisa (in the village of Begram) has yielded Buddhist sculptures of Gandhara type, alongwith Greco-Roman statuettes, ornamented stucco discs, Sasanian glassware, and lacquered boxes from China. Finds in the ruins of Hadda near Jelalabad include stucco sculptures and pre-6th century CE stupas. However, the monasteries of Bamiyan constitute the most important site, having 2 colossal Buddha statues (of which one is in the Gandhara style), fragments of wall paintings in Sasanian, Indian, and Iranian styles, and a terracotta Bodhisattva figure -- the last being the piece de resistance of the area.
- p. 53-56: N.D., The Road to Central Asia: Central Asia | The art of Kara-Shar and Kizil (not later than the 6th century CE) is mostly Hinayana in character, while that of the Turfan oasis (as later as the 9th century CE) is part of the Chinese art of the Tang period. Central Asian art exhibits various influences: wall paintings in Miran indicate Gandhara style, while the artist's name Tita or Titus shows that Roman craftsmen brought classical art to the frontiers of China; Buddhist works in the oasis of Khotan and Turfan, and at Kara-Shar and Kizil, show the same mixture of western classical and Gandhara style as at Bamiyan; wall paintings at the ruins of Dandan Uliq carry the obvious influence of deeper India, and Indian craftsmen may have been employed; a fusion of Indian and late Antique elements is visible on the Buddhist terracotta relief from Tumshuq; Kizil wall paintings, although executed at the same time, show Bamiyan and Indo-Iranian Chinese influence; the 6th century wall paintings of Tun-Huang in western China represent a synthesis of Indian provincial and Indo-Iranian techniques; and the 8th-10th century paintings at Beizekalk are completely in Chinese style. The advance of Islam in about the 8th century ended Buddhist art in Central Asia.
- p. 57-60: S.P., The Road to Central Asia: Kashmir | Remains have been found at Ushkar -- built by the Kushana ruler Huvishka in the 3rd century BCE -- and Harwan, of about the same period. The structure comprised the conventional stupa, temple, and monastery, with a masonry of mud, pebbles, and ashlar. Terracotta tiles were used on walls and pavements. The decorations on the terracotta plaques are derived from various sources. The architecture of Parihaspura -- dedicated by Lalitaditya in the 8th century -- is described, along with the baroque terra-cottas (dated to 700-776 by Dr Fabri) which have largely discarded the Greco-Roman elements and enriched the restrictive vocabulary of the classic time. The Buddhist sculpture of Kashmir is a unique synthesis of many influences, distinct in its feeling and sensuous styles from the rest of India.
- p. 61-66: Barrett, Douglas, The Golden Age of Buddhist Art: Amaravati | The development of the Buddha image at Amaravati occurred in three phases. In the early phase, Buddha and the 4 miracles were symbolically represented, as seen in the chaitya khamba (pillar). In the middle phase, the symbols – to which the Pillar of Fire was added -- were occasionally replaced by the seated Buddha image, as evident on the dome slabs, and scenes of Temptation and Enlightenment. The source for the seated Buddha image may have been Mathura. In the late phase, the Buddha is frequently represented (both before and after Enlightenment), although the symbols retain their validity. The seated Buddha remains most popular, while the standing Buddhas show less variety.
- p. 67-71: Sivaramamurti, C., The Golden Age of Buddhist Art: Nagarjunakonda | The Buddha is represented in anthropomorphic and symbolic form. Many scenes are depicted in almost the same manner as at Amaravati: the scene of Buddha visiting Yashodhara and Rahula, and Ajatasatru's visit to the Buddha; Jataka stories, and the stories of Nanda and Janapada Kalyani and of Padmakumara. Nagarjunakonda shows the artistic excellence of carvings of the Ikshvaku period. Scythian influence is visible in the dress-styles. The sculptures are discussed along with related verses from classical texts.
- p. 72: Rowland, Benjamin, The Golden Age of Buddhist Art: Gupta Period -- Preliminary | An introduction to the Gupta period of artistic excellence, in which the political unity of India made for an artistic unity transcending regional boundaries.
- p. 73-78: Rowland, Benjamin, The Golden Age of Buddhist Art: Gupta Period -- Architecture | Gupta architecture represents a final development of many earlier types. This is evident in the contribution of the rock-cut chaitya-hall and basilican plan in the Mahayana sanctuary of Cave XIX at Ajanta, which also reveals changes since Karle and Bhaja. In Cave XIX there is an elaboration of the stupa, and decoration of the nave and facade. The yaksha-dvarapalas on either side of the chaitya window and the arrangement of multiple Buddhas covering a wall surface are prototypes for the rock-cut sanctuaries of China of the Six Dynasties (220-589) and Tang (618-906) periods. In the Gupta period, the chaitya-hall becomes a free-standing temple of permanent materials, as seen at Chezarla (Guntur district), Ter, and Sanchi. The plan of the garbhagriha (sanctuary) of Temple 17 at Sanchi -- providing for a porch or mandapa in front -- is significant as it forms the nucleus of all later temple-building in India. The characteristics of Gupta temple architecture -- which are described with specific examples from Aihole (Durga, Hucchimalligudi, and Ladh Khan temples), Deogarh (Shiva temple), Bhitargaon (brick temple), and Bhumara (Shiva temple) -- are a combination of new concepts with traditional ones.
- p. 79-85: Rowland, Benjamin, The Golden Age of Buddhist Art: Gupta Period -- Sculpture | Gupta sculpture developed mainly out of the traditions of the Indian school of Mathura and Greco-Roman art of the north-west frontier. This process of development is traced with a typical example from Mathura depicting the Buddha, and points of similarity and departure from Gandhara Buddhas are noted. The similarity of artistic styles in production for various religions is evident in the Vishnu fragment from Mathura and the Bodhisattva torso in the Mathura Museum. Sarnath, a flourishing centre of Gupta-period Buddhist sculpture which influenced Buddhist art in Siam, Cambodia, and Borobudur (Java), has yielded standing Buddhas, a high relief statue of the Buddha preaching his first sermon, and steles with scenes of the Buddha's life. The metal sculptures of the Gupta period include the colossal copper image of the Buddha from Sultanganj (in the Birmingham Museum), several bronze statuettes of the Buddha and Buddhist divinities from Gandhara and Dhanesar Khera. The Gupta period also saw the carving of Jaina, Buddhist, and Hindu images and reliefs all over India.
- p. 86-92: Goetz, Hermann, The Golden Age of Buddhist Art: Gupta Period -- Painting: Ajanta | With colour plates and illustrations of Ajanta frescos, the article attempts to define their chronology, development, and position (in the context of contemporary Indian civilizations) across almost one millennium (early 2nd century BCE to as late as 6th-7th century CE). The dates suggested by Ghulam Yazdani are revised with respect to the individual frescos, including the Cave IX friezes of Nagaraja or Gautamiputra Sriyajña Satakarni, and animal and hunting scenes. The introduction of Gupta painting at Ajanta is attributed to the matrimonial alliance between Rudrasena II and Chandragupta II, and frescos of Cave XVII are said to mirror the spirit of Kalidasa's poetry. The Ajanta frescos reveal a progressive change in ethnic structure and cultural affiliations. It is surmised that Ajanta became a centre of Gupta art under Chalukya tutelage, or might have been the work of refugees from the North.
- p. 93-95: Gangoly, O.C., Mediaeval Buddhist Art and its Offshoots -- Preliminary: Pala-Sena Period | The Gupta school of Sarnath provided images to worshippers in Magadha and Bengal, before the Pala school (750-1155) came into existence as an "Eastern School". The centres of Buddhist sculpture during this period were Bodhgaya, Nalanda, and Ramapala (East Bengal). The school had two branches – Nalanda and Gauda (north and east Bengal). The innovations of the Pala artists were: the crowned Buddha (seated and standing); treatment of lotus-stems on the lower part of the throne; and the trefoiled arch on pillars carved on the stela of images. The inspiration of Pala sculpture -- which included crowned Buddhas, a series of Lokanathas, Lokeshvaras, and Avalokiteshvaras, and images of Taras or "Saviouresses" -- came from Mahayana worship. The Sena school (1155-99) was the last phase of Bengal Buddhist sculpture.
- p. 96-101: Altekar, A.S., Mediaeval Buddhist Art and its Offshoots -- Nalanda | Nalanda appears to have a master plan which was followed for centuries. The monasteries were at least double-storeyed, with a central courtyard, chapel, well, and windowless rooms with a covered verandah. Through 750 years of its establishment, some monasteries were rebuilt several times. The stupas or chaityas were square structures with four corners, but the usual form of a square platform (surmounted by a semi-hemispherical structure) is missing. The corners of the 4th and 5th stupas show niches decorated with stucco figures of the Buddha and Bodhisattvas in several mudras. The plan of one temple at chaitya site no.12 resembles in plan a panchayatana Hindu temple, while another -- with several Hindu deities -- was probably a Hindu shrine, or represents the amalgamation of Hindu and Buddhist pantheons. The Nalanda ruins show that besides being a centre of humanistic studies, it also provided an impetus to architecture and fine arts, the latter represented by stucco and bronze images of the Buddha and Buddhist deities. These statues reflect stylistic affinities with Ellora and Indo-Javanese art forms.
- p. 102-105: Gairola, C. Krishna, Mediaeval Buddhist Art and its Offshoots -- Nepal | The Palas (9th-12th century) expanded Indian art and culture to Southeast Asia, Nepal, and Tibet. The sculptors Dhiman and Bitpalo (9th century), referred to by the 17th-century Tibetan historian Taranath, started the "eastern" (Bengal) and "western" (Magadha, Bihar) schools respectively. The eastern school influenced Nepalese art, which was close to Tibetan art. The three most important centres -- Patan, Bhatgoon, and Khatmandu reveal stupas (Svayambhumath and Boodmath near Patan) and pagodas (Chengu Narayan and Nyatpola Deval at Bhatgoon). Nepalese metal images include one of Padmapani (among the earliest, supposed to date from the 9th-10th century). However, the earliest Nepalese gilt images are dated to the 14th century. Karl Khandalavala suggests that the earlier images are mainly solid cast and the later ones hollow cast, and that a new casting technique -- in which decorative accessories were cast separately -- took place in the 17th or 18th century. As in sculpture and architecture, Nepalese schools and manuscript paintings were originally inspired by mediaeval Indian art. According to Moti Chandra, the early Nepalese Buddhist paintings (c. 9th-12th century) are greatly indebted to the eastern Indian school of painting practised at Vikramshila, Nalanda, etc. Towards the 16th century, the influence of the mixed Rajput-Mughal style reached Nepal, introducing a new phase in the evolution of Nepalese painting.
- p. 106-109: Roerich, George, Mediaeval Buddhist Art and its Offshoots -- Tibet | The essentially religious art of Tibet was stimulated by the spread of Buddhism and the monastic establishments built by the Palas in Magadha, the centre of artistic activity. The Tibetan Buddhist pantheon is a faithful reproduction of the Buddhist pantheon of the Pala-Sena epoch. The "Eastern" school was established by Dhiman and his son Vitpala. Followers of the Vitpala later became known as the Madhyadesha school in Magadha. This school contributed towards the establishment of the Guge artistic tradition in western Tibet, and moulded the religious art of Tibet, with the province of Tsang as its centre. Pictorial art includes thankas, frescos, and miniatures. The arrival of Atisha (1042 CE) in Tibet strengthened the influence of Pala-Buddhist art. Much of the architecture was of wood, and some ancient Tibetan monasteries were built in the style of Buddhist viharas. Newari artists brought this Nepalese art to Tibet. Various streams of influence are discernible in Tibet, and in its turn, Tibetan art influenced the art of neighbouring areas.